Thesis Statements

England's rise in power in the New World was an indirect result of their gains from the Treaty of Utrecht, naval bases in Gibraltar and Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, which allowed them to take over the slave trade from Spain and to control main trading posts.

Review: 1560-1715

• Church enters crisis of authority
• Ongoing conflicts and disease
• Rise of people who are questioning the authority and validity of the church hierarchy
• Machiavelli rejected the idea that popes were more important than kings
• Saw the need to reform the Church because the state itself was a secular thing.
• Religion and faith were not political ideas; they could bring cohesion to the state.
• Rise in middle class
• Capitalism didn't exist yet.  
• Many reformers that did not agree with the Church.  
• Corruption was the problem for the Church.
• Peasantry was also moving into a new position.
• Began to revolt against the aristocracy in England, Italy, France, and Germany
• Against political, economic, social, and religious authority. 
• Martin Luther 1483-1546
• Was the son of a middle class family.
• Became an Augustinian monk (Catholic)
• It was through this that he began his attack on the sale of indulgences. 
• In 1517 he posted the 95 Thesis on the door of the Cathedral of 
• Luther's idea appealed to the people who resented the corruption of the Catholic clergy
• Resented the wealth, authority, and corruption in the Church. 
• Luther was liked by the peasants and nobility.
• Luther's ideas helped guide John Calvin.
• John Calvin
• Moralist
• Believed that moral righteousness must be pursued.  
• The ethic of Calvinism was the ethic of self control.  
• He put forth the idea that the overwhelming majority of human beings are damned and that it is all God's will. 
• Geneva, Switzerland becomes the Calvinist stronghold.  In France the Calvinists are called Huguenot.  In England it goes along with the reformation. 
• Inquisition enlarged its activity.
• Index of forbidden books
• Confirmed by the Council of Trent (1546)
• Was not taken down until 1966. 
• The Church was shattered, there was a rise in folk religion and witchcraft, and even Protestantism starts to fragment into numerous sects. 
• The power of the monarchs increases.  
• The Church really becomes more of a political organization. 
• The pope himself was like a king.
• Europe only had 30 years of international peace between 1560-1715. 
• 1555 - Peace of Augsburg
• Princes were allowed to choose which religion their principality followed.  This actually increased hostilities. 
• Catholics tried to ally with each other and so did Protestants. idiological alliances - alliances based on similarities in idioloy.  
• Thirty Years War began in Bohemia. 
• Ferdinand II became king of Bohemia in 1617. 
• He was a Catholic. 
• Bohemian Protestants feared that he would try to make Bohemia Catholic. 
• Ferdinand was deposed and crown offered to Frederick IV.
• Protestant Union led by Frederick, Catholic League led by Ferdinand. 
• Ferdinand tried to use the Jesuits to re-Catholicize the are. 
• 1625 - King of Denmark joins Protestants. 
• He was more interested n gaining land than helping, and his forces were defeated
• Was defeated by Catholic Wallenstein and his army. 
• Even Wallenstein wanted to gain personal power. 
• 1629 - Denmark withdraws from the Thirty years War
• Ferdinand issues Edict of Restitution
• Restores all Land to Catholics
• 1630 - Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, enters war to protect claims to the Baltic's 
• Gustavus won in Saxony (Lutzen) against Wallenstein, but Gustavus dies. 
• France now sees it's opportunity.
• Cardinal Richeleu decided to accept any allies regardless of religion. 
• 1635 - declares war on Spain
• 1643 - Spainsh Habsburgs defeated by France
• Treaty of Westphalia
• Signed in 1648
• Fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire. 
• France gets the right to Alsace. 
• Thirty Years War
• Destroyed much of Europe. 
• Holy Roman Empire lost 1/4 of it's inhabitants. 
• Many civil wars
• Protestantism was illegal in France
• But it's numbers grew. 
• Guise 
• Powerful Catholic family in France.  
• 1562 - War breaks out between Protestants and Catholics.  
• Around 70, 000 Protestants were killed that year through fighting between Protestants and Catholics.  
• Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV. 
• Issued Edict of Nantest. 
• Grants tolerance to Protestantism. 
• Edict revoked by Louis XIV. 
• 1560's  - Dutch revolted against king of Spain.  
• Phillip recognized that the Dutch were very powerful.  
• 1575 - Protestant united under William of Orange. 
• Fought against the tyranny of Phillip. 
• Scots rebel against Mary Queen of Scots. 
• She was Catholic.  
• 1528 - destruction of Spainish Armada
• England 
• Go into Civil War between 1640-1660. 
• Behead Charles and Cromwell takes over. 
• All of these  conflicts were caused by religious and often political struggles.
• French become dominant power
• Power of Spain declines. 
• Role of the absolute monarch perfected 
• Louis XIV 
• lived above the laws. 
• Period is a defined by mercantilism.  
• Fixed amount of raw materials on the earth. 
• 1521-1660
• Spanish imported 18,000 tons of silver from the New World
• Caused their economy to crash. 
• New World exploration for gold increased gold in Europe by 20%. 
• Gold and silver saw an enormous expansion in the markets. 
• Bourgeoisie class emerged. 
• "Men of the town"
• upper middle class. 
• Business people of Europe.  
• Men who made thieer money in banking, investment, and business. 
• Dutch and English would provide the commercial spirit. 
• Set into motion the Industrial Revolution
• Exploration in the New World
• To find a northwest passage
• Through Canada to China
• Saint Lawrence River
• Mississippi River
• English establish colonies. 
• English Catholics came to Maryland
• St. Thomas Island
• First college was founded in the New World
• Harvard in 1636. 
• Not founded by John Harvard, but named after him. 
• Founded by the Puritan teachers there. 
• Scientific Revolution
• Science, mathematics, astronomy
• Scientists
• Copernicus 
• Heliocentricism 
• Bruno
• Burned at the stake
• Kepler
• Tycho Brahe
• Galileo 
• Robert Hooke
• Robert Boyle
• Edmond Hayley
• Isaac Newto
• Philosophers
• Rene DeCart
• John Locke
• Francis Bacon
• Thomas Hobbes
• monarchist/absolutist
• wrote Leviathan
• Leibniz 
• Spinoza 
• *****LOOK UP SCIENTISTS AND PHILOSOPHERS FOR MIDTERM******
• Witchcraft
• By 1660 there was a lengthy tradition of witchcraft in Europe. 
• Mostly by country folk and peasants. 
• There was a lot of suspicion about them.
• Tradition can be traced back all the way through the Pagan origins of European culture. 
• They were suspicious, but they lived with it. 
• Changed in the 17th Century. 
• 2 types of witchcraft
• Healing and fortune telling
• Demonology
• bringing up and conversing with evil spirits
• Not all witches who did one type did the other. 
• Many different kinds of witches.
• The Church believed that witches had entered into a bond with Satan and were working against God and the Church. 
• Witches held secret meetings with Satan
• Tried to persecute witches for heresy
• Persecutions became fear and anxiety. 
• Spread rumors about the witches that they were plotting to overthrow the Church. 
• Malleus Maleficarum was a book written in the 15th century. 
• "The Witch Hammer"
• Written by  Heinrich Kramer, an Inquisitor of the Catholic Church, and Jacob Sprenger. 
• Women were linked with witchcraft. 
• Were female and male witches, but Church went after women. 
• 100,000 people were tried for witchcraft. 
• 10,000 were executed
• Burned at the stake
• Believed that women were perceived to be "the weaker vessel" 
• Give in more to temptation
• 1700: Burning Ties died down
• The Reformation triggered an intellectual backlash. 
• backlash against religious fanaticism
• Atmosphere which implied that it was reason that could figure out the world. 
• Led to the Enlightenment
• Enlightenment Period
• Bring faith into accordance with reason. 
• The noble elite, who had hired astrologers and other "witches." 

Dutch Republic Essay

The Dutch Republic was very different from many of the countries that surrounded it during the 17th century because it was a republic instead of absolutist,  there was religious freedom that provided refuge for many people from other countries, and they had a great banking system and economy; all of which allowed the Dutch Republic to become one of the most successful countries in Europe.

The Dutch Republic was, as in it's countries name, a republic.  A republic is a state where the power lies with the body of citizens who exercise their power by voting for representatives.  In Europe during the 17th century, absolutism was the most common form of government. An absolutist government is one where there is complete and unrestricted power in the government.  Usually there was one person in the government who had total control.  For example, King Louis XIV of France was an absolute monarch, who proclaimed his powerfulness when he said, "L'État, c'est moi," meaning "I am the State."  This type of government was not fair to the people of the country. There was no religious freedom and the people of the rich, noble, upper class were given special rights and privileges that the poor peasantry and middle class were not.

The Dutch Republic also allowed it's residents to practice their own religions freely.  There was not one religion of the country that everyone had to conform to, unlike countries such as France, where after the Edict of Nantes was revoked, only Catholicism was allowed; and England, where Protestantism was the only accepted religion.  Many people of religions that were not allowed in these countries left and went to the Dutch Republic where they would be accepted. This brought in more people, equaling more workers, which equaled more money.  The increase in wealth for the Dutch Republic helped them to become successful.

Having more people working in the Dutch Republic allowed the country to produce more of it's main exports, cheese and butter.  The Dutch also started exploring the New World in the 17th century, setting up colonies in  North America, South Africa, and the East Indies.  These colonies brought in more money to the Dutch Republic.  Having more money stimulated the economic growth of the Dutch Republic.  More money also required the Dutch to develop a good banking system, which they did.  Their banking system was so great that the Dutch coin, the florin, was used internationally.

All of these factors allowed the Dutch Republic to become a successful country.  Their allowance of people's say in the government, religious toleration, and their great banking system and good economy, made them a very wealthy and popular power in Europe. The Dutch Republic was the place to be in the 17th century.

Revised Thesis Statement

 The trials and tribulations of Galileo are often considered both predicative of the future of Western Civilization, as well as a perfect encapsulation of the context of his own time, because even though he was limited in materials; such as wood, string, and metal; tools, like a telescope of his own invention that did not work very well; and he was not allowed to share some of his beliefs: for example his belief in heliocentricism; his ideas and inventions helped change the lives of the people around him and basically started the scientific revolution, which has led humanity to where it is today.  

Great Fire of London Map Project

Link to Great Fire map:
http://maps.google.com/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=117472999590189908538.000496467711b6b9045ae&t=h&z=14

Free Response Practice Test #1

"Why are the trials and tribulations of Galileo often considered both predicative of the future of Western Civilization as well as a perfect encapsulation of the context of his own time?"


Galileo was an Italian scientist, who lived from 1564 to 1642. He is many times referred to as "the father of science." His works greatly influenced the lives of people of his time, and they have also been a huge influence on modern science and many scientists throughout history.  The trials and tribulations of Galileo are often considered both predicative of the future of Western Civilization as well as a perfect encapsulation of the context of his own time because even though he was limited in tools and materials and he was not allowed to share some of his findings, his ideas and inventions helped change the lives of the people around him and basically started the scientific revolution, which has led humanity to where it is today.  


Galileo was limited in the tools and materials he could use as a scientist.  In the 16 and 17th century people did not have the kinds of technology like they do today.  There were no computers, iPads, and other fancy machines that scientists could work with.  Galileo had to make simple experiments.  One example is, he dropped items off the Leaning Tower of Pisa to see if they fell to the ground and if so, how fast they did.  He did not have many tools to make great machines either.  He invented the telescope, which helped sea men and the military.  His telescope worked, but it was nothing compared to the super high powered telescopes that astronomers use today. Even with these limits he was able to make tools and other inventions that made life easier for the people around him and allowed those people to then build off of his ideas. 


Galileo was also not allowed to share some of his ideas with the people.  At the time when Galileo lived, it was widely believed that the Earth was the center of the solar system.  This belief is called geocentricism.  People believed that the sun revolved around the Earth.  Galileo's ideas were different though.  He believed that the Earth revolved around the sun, which as people know today, is true.  This belief is called heliocentric-ism.  He discovered this by studying the tides.  In order for there to be tides there had to be some hidden force that caused them, which he believed was the rotation of earth while it orbits the sun. The Catholic church was against this idea because in their minds it went against church teachings.  Galileo, who was Catholic, argued that the scripture should not always be taken literally, so his idea was not going against it.  He published a book with his findings about heliocentric-ism to prove his theory, but the Church arrested him under the accusation of heresy.  They banned his book and sentenced him to house arrest for the rest of his life.  


Even with these different things trying to hold Galileo back, he still was able to change the world.  His works have been influencing people for centuries.  He discovered Jupiter's four largest moons, which are now named after him.  His book on heliocentric-ism was eventually accepted by the Catholic Church, so it was then available to people all over the world.  Today it is known that he was correct in saying that everything revolves around the sun.  He also started the ideas of the laws of motion, influencing Sir Issac Newton to continue and expand on those ideas.  As previously stated he invented the telescope.  He also perfected the compound light microscope, which is still used today.  He wrote many books on his findings and theories, passing on tons of information to future scientists, inspiring them and helping them to make progress on their own ideas. 


Galileo's ideas, experiments, findings, and inventions led the way for other scientists.  He started the scientific revolution.  Without him, the world today would be very different.  There would most likely not be the same amount of technology.  This would basically change everything in today's society because society revolves around technology.  Even though Galileo was held back by limited technology and opposition to his beliefs, his life's works helped shape the world into what it is today and they will continue to have an influence for years to come.  

France: Late 16th to Early 18th Century

• France 
• Late 16th through early 18th century
• 1598 King Henry IV of France
• Issued Edict of Nantes
• Granted religious toleration to the French Huguenots 
• Established Henry IV as a politique. 
• Nobility was exempt from paying taxes
• Caused tax problems
• Henry IV appoints Duke of Sully
• Makes the tax system more efficient
• Nobility decided to give money in exchange for prestigious positions in the government; rather than pay taxes. 
• Called the Nobility of the Robe
• 1610: Henry IV is assassinated
• From the family of the house of Bourbon
• One of the greatest families of France
• His son, Louis XIII  becomes king
• He is only nine years old
• Cardinal Richelieu becomes Chief Minister, most important regent. 
• 1624-1642: Richelieu is in charge of France
• Goal: strengthen the royal power in France. 
• A politique
• Put politics ahead of religion.
• His heart is with the king of France and not with the pope. 
• Wanted to knock down the up-and-coming nobles. 
• Divides France into 32 segments. 
• Noble in charge was replaced by superintendent 
• Usually middle class people. 
• They would be more loyal because they have a position of power. 
• Thought it was most important to limit Habsburg power. 
• Supports the Protestants in the 30 years war. 
• They are against the Habsburgs. 
• He doesn't want them to become more powerful. 
• Examples of politique
• 1642: Richelieu and Louis XIII both die. 
• Louis XIII had a son named Louis XIV 
• Louis XIV becomes known as the "Sun King
• Became king when he was 5
• Cardinal Mazarin was his chief minister 
• As he was crowned, rebellion started to break out.  
• The rebellions were made to limit the power of the king; not to take the king down. 
• These rebellions are known as the Frondes. 
• They caused Louis XIV as a little boy to leave Paris. 
• He grows up harboring a resentment towards the people. 
• The rebellions cause Louis to move the palace to Versailles 
• Bossuet 
• Theorized the divine right of kings. 
• He was the principle architect of absolutism in the 17th century. 
• Louis believed that he was appointed by God to be the absolute ruler of France.  
• He did not share power with a parliament like England's kings did.  
• Louis increased the power of the intendants. 
• As he did this the power of the nobility went down.
• In order to keep up their power they had to be loyal to the king.  
• Jean Baptiste Colbert
• Appointed by Louis XIV to be the minister of France. 
• Instituted mercantilism.
• At this time France now had a major colony in the New World; Quebec.  
• More exports than imports. 
•  In 1685 France's population is about 19 million people. 
• 1 million of which are Huguenots.  
• He revokes the Edict of Nantes because he no longer needs their influences. 
• He closes Protestant churches and orders them to be Catholic. 
• The problem though is that the French working class was mostly Huguenots.  When he revoked the Edict of Nantes they left and went to other countries. 
• This seriously diminishes France's industrial capacity. 
• Wars of Louis XIV 
• At this time, France was the most populous nation in Europe. 
• Because of the 30 Years War, France had really become the most successful.  
• 2 strategic goals
• Wanted France to expand it's borders. 
• He wanted to move down into Switzerland
• Wanted to make France a global power.
• Wanted more power for France in the Americas. 
• One way to do this, was to inherit the holdings of the Spanish Habsburgs. 
• Louis XIV's system continues smoothly on to the next heir.  
• Louis XIV's army threatened universal monarchy. 
• Louis XIV's wanted to be sovereign over the continent of Europe.
• Because of the 30 Year's War there was no other entity in Europe that could face him.  He used this to his great advantage.  
• Alliances were created between the weaker countries in Europe to try to balance the power. 
• Louis tries several times to extend into the Dutch Republic, but each time he is pushed back. 
• He also tries to push into Spain.
• Spain
• 1700 - Charles II dies.  He does not have an heir. 
• In his will, he bequeaths the throne to Philip of Anjou. 
• Philip of Anjou is Louis XIV's grandson. 
• All of the other countries in Europe had a fear that Louis XIV was going to create a universal monarchy. 
• They form the Grand Alliance
• Made up of Holland, Austria, Principality of Brandenburg, and the Italian Duchy of Savoy. 
• This started a war between the French and the Grand Alliance.
• War of Spanish Succession
• 1701-1713
• Cost an enormous amount of money to wage.  
• It will be one of the things that the revolutionaries will blame the French Monarchy for.
• 1713 Treaty of Utrecht 
• Created a new balance of power in Europe that would last over the next 30 years. 
• France 
• Louis XIV's grandson, Philip V, was allowed to remain king of Spain so long as Spain and France were not united. 
• France can keep Alsace. 
• English
• Get naval bases in Gibraltar, the inlet that connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. 
• This was important because of trade with the New World.
• The slave trade was a major economic force in Spain so when England takes over Gibraltar, they take over the slave trade. 
• Gets to check the balance of the French - picks up Newfoundland and Nova Scotia.
• Gulf of Saint Lawrence is the major trade route into the New World. 
• Austria
• Picks up the Spanish Netherlands, which become Belgium. 
• Picks up old French holdings in Italy.  Austrians come into Naples, Milan, and Sardinia. 
• Duke of Savoy
• He is given Sicily and he becomes king of Sicily. 
• 1720 - he grows tired of Sicily. 
• He trades with Austria for Sardinia. 
• Elector of Brandenburg 
• He becomes the king of Prussia.