First Draft of Outline

Outline

Nationalism 1815-1848

• Nationalism favors the creation of independent and autonomous (self-ruling) states. 
• Greece
• Had been occupied by the Turks. 
• Rise for Greek independence is a nationalist movement of 19th century. 
• Western writers, including the English poets Percy Shelly and Lord Byron, supported the Greek cause. 
• Relations between Turkey and the West had never been good. 
• In Ancient times, Turkey had been apart of the Persian Empire. Had attacked places in Europe during this time. 
• 1827 - England, France, Russia signed the Treaty of London.
• Says that they're going to take the side of Greek independence. 
• Important because Austria had problems with Russia getting involved with Greece. Russia and Greece both had the Orthodox Church, which connected them.  Former Holy Roman Empire Principalities to the north and east of Austria were very weak.  Russia starts occupying those old principalities to protect Greece. This upsets Britain and France. Treaty was supposed to be about Greece becoming independent, not Russia expanding. 
• Greeks become independent in 1832 at the cost of Russia expanding.  
• Russia also remained an absolute monarchy under the rule of the czars. 
• Belgium becomes its own country. 
• Originally they take Louis Philip as their king (Louis Philip is the king of France). 
• Louis gives that throne to his brother, making Belgium its own country. 
• Southern Netherlands had recently been unified with the north. 
• The process of unification meant that new nations had to be created, therefore nationalism. 
• Germany had been completely fractured. 
• It was not really a nation, but a collection of principalities.
• With the turn of the century in the 1800s the German people feel like they have been left out. 
• Herder and Fichte have an idea of the volkgeist, the spirit of the common people, which unifies them as one. 
• They don't want outside interference in Germany. They don't want Germany to become cosmopolitan.  They want Germany to develop a sense of its own independent customs and traditions separate from the rest of Europe. 
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
• Born in 1770 and lived until 1831. 
• Was interested in the way history happens. 
• Proposes the Dialectic system
• Idea is that history does not neatly progress from one thing to the next. Every thing that happens is influenced by other things. 
• Thesis and antithesis. When they meet, they form synthesis. That new synthesis forms a new thesis. Combines with another antithesis and forms another synthesis. This keeps repeating. 
• This is the Hegelian Philosophy of History
• The structural model that Karl Marx uses in describing history in the industrial age. 
• Marx will prove to be extremely influential as a counter to capitalism. 
• Strong middle class = strong country
• Marx is going to say that the way the power structure exists right now is that the person with the power is the one who is in charge. ex. factory owner. In the Communist Manifesto, Marx says that you can change this system. Says that the people in the factory can united and rise up against the factory owner and run the factory themselves. This is the Communist ideal. 
• Marx is going to use the Hegelian Dialectic to prove his point and foster a major revolution that will create a new kind of political reality, one in which there are capitalistic nations of the west (United States, England, France) and on the other side Communist nations (Soviet Union, Vietnam, China). 
• Von Ranke and List both argued that Germany had not fully developed into a nation-state and that it needed to.  
• Said that Germany needed economy systems like the one in England: laissez-faire.
• Laissez-faire - little government regulation of the economy. including restrictive regulations, taxes, tariffs and enforced monopolies. 
• In order for things to be produced cheaply and not regulate the market, wages had to be lowered.
• Animal Farm by George Orwell
• book about animals on a farm and the animals get to run the farm on their own. 
• Written as an allegory of the rise of Communism.
• 1848 - France revolts against Louis Philip. 
• News travels faster because of newspapers
• The Times of London
• Newspapers with steam-powered printing presses that can get news out daily. 
• Germany is greatly threatened by riots in the streets of Berlin inspired by the revolt in France. 
• Germany was revolting against the king
• King William agrees for a new German constitution. 
• Frankfurt Assembly debated over whether or not Germany should formalize as a nation. 
• All of the powers that controlled the principalities under old aristocratic hierarchy's did not want to give up their power. 
• There were two large German states: Prussia and Austria
• States had people that were ethnically Germanic.
• Neither Austria or Prussia wanted the other to dominate the minor states.
• Also political groups. 
• Junkers
• sort of Prussian nationalists. 
• Thought Prussia was better off without Germany and Austria. 
• Views were at odds with the people at the Frankfurt Assembly. 
• The Prussians do not think they need the rest of Germany either. 
• had a popularly elected parliament and productive economy. 
• Prussians decide to have their own assembly called the Berlin Assembly. 
• This is like a convention and was made in resolve of the Frankfurt Assembly. 
• This assembly turns out to be politically anti-Junker. 
• They think that they could work with German unification and they feel that they have responsibilities towards Poland. 
• Era of industrialization and international trade. 
• To keep this going farmland is needed. Poland has some of the best agricultural lands in Europe. Russia did not because of their harsh climate. 
• Poland also had ports. They had the ability to have international trade. 
• German ports were limited and Russian ports were very limited. 
• How do you define Germany?
• We tend to look back and think of it as the country of Germany. 
• Germany was not unified though. Was made up of separate principalities. 
• Assembly offers King William a constitutional monarchy and he does not accept it.  Germany does not explode into a revolution. Becomes this holding pattern. 
• The industrialization of the country is booming, while the politics are confused. 
• Italy
• Northern Italy wound up being controlled by Austria after the Napoleonic Wars. 
• Austrian police and spies were in Italian principalities that it did not have full control over. 
• There were nationalist movements wanted to expel Austrians and French. 
• Most famous was the Carbonari. 
• The leader was Joseph Mazzini.  
• He started a group called Young Italy. 
• In northern and central Italy in 1831, there was violence, but no unity. 
• Young Italy tried to start a movement toward Italian unity.  These attempts failed and Mazzini was forced into exile. 
• 1834-1836 and 1844 - Mazzini tried to revolt, but these attempts ended in futility.  
• 1848 and 1849
• Austria
• directly influenced by what's going on in France with the revolution against Louis Philip. 
• Austria is fundamentally an oligarchy
• one family controls the political and governmental running of the country. This is the Habsburgs. 
• Some people are against the Habsburgs. 
• 1848 - Louis Kossuth is one of these people. He makes a speech about liberty that inspires workers and students to revolt. 
• Metternich resigns and flees to England. 
• the Hungarian Diet declared independence from Austria, but they still accept and support the Habsburg king. 
• Split because the Germanic Austrians and non-Germanic Hungarians did not get along very well. 
• Ethnic differences. 
• Austrians used the Eastern part (Hungarian part) for the purposes of building up industrialization. 
• Austria now sees that in Bohemia there can be a similar thing that happened in Hungary, which they don't want. 
• They allow Bohemia to have partial independence with the exception being that they had to be loyal to the king. 
• Prague
• There is an All-Slav Conference in Prague in June 1848. 
• These Slavic groups at the conference were anti-German.  The Slavs wanted equal recognition with other nationalities.  
• The Germans in Bohemia favored the Frankfurt Assembly. 
• Slavs resented the Germans in Bohemia and the idea of unification with Germany. 
• Within Bohemia (Czech Republic, Bosnia, Serbia) there are more Slavs than Ethnic Germans. 
• Because Austria is ethnically German, they give special treatment to the ethnic Germans in Bohemia, even though there are more Slavs in Bohemia. 
• The Slavs revolt in 1848 after this congress in Prague against Austrians. 
• King Ferdinand of Austria sends in troops and shuts down the Slavic congress ending the revolt. 
• Moves into a holding pattern.
• The situation within the Austrian Empire and their relations with their client states was never resolved.  
• This is the root cause of WWI.
• Over the next 30 years alliances develop.
• Hungary
• Magyars create a new capital -- Budapest. 
• They attempt the "Magyarization" of Hungary. 
• The problem is that the other ethnicities do not want to listen to what they have to say. 
• Now their is a revolution within a revolution. 
• 1st revolution is Hungarians breaking off from Austrian rule. 
• 2nd is between Magyars and the Serbs/Croats. 
• A party rises up out of Croat politics who go against the Magyars. King Ferdinand supports this Croat party. 
• This revolt is led by Jellachich. 
• This is an indirect way of Austria keeping a firm grip on Hungary because Hungary knows that they cannot fight against the Austrian army and win. 
• The Magyars think that if they can keep the Croats at bay, then there is no way that the King of Austria is actually going to crush them.  
• If the Austrian government tries to put down the Magyars, then the other ethnic minorities would most likely revolt. They believe that there is no way that will happen. 
• the King gets the Russians to stop the Magyars for him. 

Liberalism

• Liberalism in the 19th century is different from what we think of as liberal today. 
• Liberals of the 19th century tend to focus on being secular and they tend to focus on the idea of progress and that progress is the goal of a society. 
• England
• They had elections in 1830. These elections weakened the conservative control in the House of Commons
• Split into the House of Commons and House of Lords
• Lords - many aristocrats and people who came up with the middle class
• Commons - wealthy 
• More liberals in the House of Commons. 
• Liberals win the elections in 1830. 
• The House of Lords is freaked out by this.  They don't want to deal with the liberals in the House of Commons. 
• They go to the king, asking him to increase the size of the nobility. 
• King William threatens that if they don't work together then he is going to make some men in the House of Commons, Lords 
• Settled with the Reform Bill of 1842
• Doubled amount of voters in England. 
• 1830-1838
• Things are relatively okay. 
• Corn and grain distribution is still a concern. 
• 1845
• Potato famine hit in Ireland. 
• Peasants were mainly affected. 
• Robert Peel pushed for reform because he saw that if they did not reform the balance between the wealthy and poor in England, then there would be a revolution like the one that happened in France. 
• Corn laws were repealed, but he lost his seat as Prime Minister. 
• 1848-1851
• As a result of the potato famine, many Irish leave Ireland and go to the United States. 
• It broke apart families. It forced people into new situations and changed the face of the United States. 
• Chartist Movement
• Tried to feed off of a lot of this reform anxiety. 
• Supportive of getting rid of the Corn Laws. 
• Really wanted a national charter, which would be presented in a petition to the Parliament, to reach their #1 goal.  
• #1 goal was universal human suffrage in England, meaning the right of everyone to vote. 
• Conservatives are against universal human suffrage. The conservatives want to keep all the power because they are the nobility and they have a strong connection with the monarchy. 
• Liberals are for it 
• France
• Charles X dissolved his government and called new elections
• If one group does not like what the leader is doing, then they can call a Vote of No Confidence. 
• The leader then has to dissolve the government and have elections for new ones. 
• In 1830, this happened and the liberals won the election. 
• Charles X is unhappy about this because he is a conservative. 
• He dissolves the newly elected government before it even comes in. 
• This caused problems. 
• Liberals were very upset. Mobs were formed in the streets, the soldiers finally refused to defend the king, and Charles had to abdicate the throne. He flees France and is exiled in England. 
• Louis Phillipe becomes the new constitutional monarch. 
• He is the Duke of Orleans. Aristocrat, conservative, and related to Charles X. 
• He ends up having a relatively peaceful reign for the next 18 years. 
• His reign was referred to as the "July Monarchy"
• His nickname was "The Orleanist."
• During his reign he tried to at least deal with the cares and anxieties of the people. 
• Brings out the tricolor flag (flag of the revolution) as the official flag of France. 
• Rising middle class. 
• The Bourgeoisie (upper middle class) are happy. They're the ones making money and living comfortably. They are not going to revolt. 
• Meanwhile the liberals and reformers in France are not too happy. 
• They see it as a conservative government trying to make themselves look more liberal so there would not be uprisings in the street. 
• Side note: democrat in France and England at this time meant people who wanted universal suffrage.
• Liberal is a political philosophy. democrat specifically relates to someone who wants universal suffrage.  
• 1848
• Pg. 167 in Kaplan
• Year known for revolutions in Europe. 

Conservatism: 1815-1848

• Congress of Vienna met in the fall of 1814 after Napoleon abdicated the throne. 
• Their purpose is settling questions of territory and treaties and negotiations. 
• Get wiki articles
• France
• Talleyrand 
• England
• Castlereagh
• Austria
• Metternich
• Russia
• Czar Alexander
• Russia refused to discuss the situation in Turkey and the Balkan States.
• England refused to talk about their international sea trade and relations with colonies. 
• Geopolitical
• Politics of territory
• Ex. England during this time is going to refuse to give up former Dutch Colonies in Africa. Russia at the same time is going to refuse to give in to the demands of Eastern European countries. 
• Create a system of strong states around the borders of France. 
• Austrian Netherlands were transfered to the Dutch. 
• Pleases Great Britain because they are allied with the Dutch
• Dutch Republic changes it's name
• Becomes the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• Ruled by the House of Orange. 
• In return, Austria got most of Northern Italy. 
• Metternich has secret police throughout Northern Italy to keep an eye on things. 
• Italy at this time is not a major power. The influence of the Church has been greatly diminished. 
• There was no attempt to restore the Holy Roman Empire. 
• No one bothers to pay attentions to the needs or political desires of the German nationalists. 
• The roots of WWI are set up during the Congress of Vienna
• Alliances that are made
• Shifts in geopolitical holdings
• This will come back to haunt the players involved. 
• Poland was created from land in Austria and Prussia.
• New land was called Congress Poland. 
• Russia now rules former Prussia and much of North Austria in this new kingdom. 
• Louis XVIII returns to France as a constitutional monarch. 
• Napoleon was banned from ever having any rule or leadership in France. 
• Czar Alexander was very religious in his thinking. 
• Created a document called the Holy Alliance
• Said that rule over Eastern Europe was divinely granted. 
• Austria, Prussia sign on.
• England refuses. Castlereagh calls the Holy Alliance "sublime mysticism and nonsense."
• The Holy Alliance basically means that Alexander has the indemnity to squash and anyone he wants to.
• They agreed that they would continue to meet to address international issues. 
• Some historians refer to these major powers as the "Concert of Europe"
• After Vienna, the Concert of Europe met again in 1815 at the Congress of Aix-la-chapelle
• Congress of Aix-la-chapelle
• 1818
• Concert agreed to withdraw a post-war occupation of France
• Accepted the idea of private bankers managing reparations
• Someone has to pay for the cost of war. 
• Britain drifts from the rest of Europe.
• Has to do with their role in the slave trade and the New World. 
• Becomes less concerned with what's going on in Continental Europe 
• 1819
• Metternich and Alexander met again in the state of Galatia. 
• They compose a new alliance called the Protocol of Troppau. 
• Their alliance would have a lot of centralized authority in behalf of the public good. 
• Castelreagh and Talleyrand refuse to participate. 
• They send an Austrian army into Naples, Italy. 
• They install their own king there in Naples. This will be one of those things that comes back to bite people. 
• 1821
• Greece had been occupied by the Ottoman Turks. 
• The Turks had swept in through the Aegean Sea. They had overcome Greece. There was war between the Greeks and the Turks. 
• Turkish army housed it's ammunitions depot in the Parthenon. 
• With the Greeks revolting a dilemma comes up for the major powers in Europe. 
•  They don't really like the Ottoman Turks. They see them as infidels and religious fanatics. 
• At the same time the Ottoman Turks were very powerful in the Middle East. 
• This causes consternation (animosity) between Austria and Russia. 
• Greek nationalists feel very connected to Russia because of the Orthodox Church. 
• Metternich does not like being surrounded by Greece and Russia. 
• Does not want Greece to ally with Russia because Russia could become too powerful. 
• 1825
• Alexander I dies suddenly.  
• Before his death he had become very conservative with his allegience to the Russian Orthodox Church. 
• Rise of secret police forces in Russia and Austria
• Russia - on their own people and in Prussia
• Austria - mainly in Northern Italy
• Many Russian nobility had been educated outside of Russia, mainly in France. 
• Influence of French will play a role in the development of the post czar mentality. 
• Young nobles coming out of French educations tend to be more liberal. 
• Tend to think that power should be spread among the nobility. 
• Use ideas from French Revolution in Russia. 
• Constantine takes over in Russia. 
• The more liberal nobility is hoping that Constantine will liberalize the government. This, however, does not happen because Constantine favors his brother Nicholas as leader and Nicholas I takes the throne.
• There is an attempted revolution when he takes the throne. 
• The Decemberists Revolt was the revolution. 
• It was put down, and Nicholas I became even more conservative than Alexander had been. 
• The Russian people become more isolated and closed off from Western Europe. 
• France
• Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, was the constitutional monarch. 
• Louis XVII had died in prison. 
• Louis XVIII is a very calm voice in French politics. He does not insert any instance of absolute monarchy. However, he is very old. 
• He signs a charter as "The Charter."  It promises a new form of national legislature that will be more democratic. The idea was that there would be people chosen from throughout the ranks of what was formerly called the Third Estate, who would vote on representatives. 
• If you did not own land, you could not vote. A large part of the Third Estate could not vote because they did not own land. 
• Major parts of the Napoleonic Code and Catholicism being nominally the state religion, remained. 
• The Vatican has no direct power in France. 
• The White Terror
• emigres - former members of the second estate who had been kicked off their land during the revolution and now having returned to France under Napoleon, are taking revenge on the former revolutionaries. 
• 1824 Louis XVIII dies. 
• Charles X succeeds him. 
• Charles X ushers in the conservative wave in France. 
• **Copy someone else's notes here**
• There is much opposition to Charles X. 
• Germany
• No one asks the Germans what they think about all of this.
• Prussia is unified and indebted to Russia. 
• There rises a real sense of nationalism in Germany. 
• The Germans have been oppressed by the other countries in Europe. 
• This turns out to be a dangerous thing in the coming century. 
• German nationalism is a direct correspondent to what happens in WWI. 
• "Germany has been wronged and therefore needs to come together as a strong political organization and stand up against the other countries in Europe."
• This German nationalism is really coming out of the German middle class. It is in the universities, business communities, etc. It is a sense that they've been wronged. Underlying resentment grows in German society against Austria, France, and Russia. 
• *Roots of Hitlers hatred towards Austria, France, and Russia come from this.*
• Jews are pushed out of where they are originally from, pushed out of Spain, and then many Jews settle in France, Poland, Austria, and Russia. 
• Germany starts to have secret police, much like Russia and Austria had.  
• England
• Dealing with it's growing empire. 
• It has holdings in the Americas, Asia, India, and Africa.
• "The sun never sets on the British Empire."
• This saying comes about because the British Empire was everywhere.  
• England can't manage food supply. 
• Passes the Corn Laws
• Redefining tariffs on corn and grains. 
• Winds up making those food prices more expensive for English citizens. 
• The rich in England are going to become very rich and the poor are going to become very poor. 
• That disparity is a direct result of industrialization. 
• The capitalists in England became rich because they owned the factories and companies. 
• There were no labor laws. No workers rights. 
• The bosses don't have to pay the people anything. 
• Factories were mainly in northern England
• In Manchester people had enough of not being able to afford food and being paid hardly anything. 
• 80,000 people took to the streets and peacefully protested. 
• Petitioned for the right of all men to vote. 
• Things go poorly. The local forces don't understand what's going on. They fire on the crowd. 11 are killed and hundreds are injured. 
• The British government itself thanked the soldiers for firing on the soldiers and doing a good job. 
• called the Peterloo Massacre. 
• Parliament had nothing to do with the legitimate representation of English people, but it had everything to do with representing those who were rich. 
• Tool of the industrialists. 
• Austria
• Continues to influence Germany.
• Metternich for the next 30 years will rule out of Vienna, influence a wide swath of non-Austrians from Italy through Germany, and will completely ignore the locals. He will completely ignore what the Germans and Italians have to say. And ignores the growing nationalism. 
• Conservatism in the 19th century
• maintaining of traditional aristocratic power. 

Thesis Statement for Term Paper

Hitler invaded Poland because of resentment from the Treaty of Versailles, his want to conquer Russia, and because he did not expect resistance from the West; but most importantly, to gain lebensraum, or "living space," in Eastern Europe for the German people. 

Industrial Revolution

• 1760-1850
• The ancestors of the Industrial Revolution were the scientists that led us through the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
• Ex. Galileo
• New technologies result in new forms of production
• Increased production, efficiency, commerce
• Exponential growth in technology
• Many of the conditions were interrelated. 
• One technological increase in one realm causes a technological change in another realm. 
• Increasing during this time is the economy especially coming out of the New World in the manufacture of cloth and that trade between colony and homeland is all part of this system within which is the context of industrialization. Also a part of mercantilism. 
• The Industrial Revolution itself is the pivot point between mercantilism and capitalism. 
• Competition to produce better technology. This promotes capitalism. 
• Until this period most tools on farms were made out of wood.  Industrial Revolution brought about metal tools. This caused faster production and the tools lasted longer. 
• As the supplies of all these things grow, so does the population. There is a great move of workers from rural areas to cities to work in factories. All of the inventions made for farms have to be made in factories. 
• Not as many people are needed on the farm when you have the inventions that replace the people. What is needed are people who invent and make new technologies. 
• Prior to 1760 textiles were made at home. This was a cottage industry. 
• Cottage industries were very small. The people, often women, made a limited number of textile goods because the processes took so long. 
• Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. Sped up the process, so more textiles could be made. 
• Spinning Jenny
• Used to be one woman sitting at a spinning wheel spinning one thread. 
• Spinning Jenny can make thread that would have taken dozens of people to make. 
• In 20 years nearly 20,000 spinning jennys were being used in England. 
• this completely changes the capacity of the country to produce materials. 
• Workers rights
• No laws governing the workers rights. 
• children could be made to work full shifts in factories
• Exploitation
• safety conditions go down
• No healthcare system
• Coal Mining
• Working conditions in 18th and 19th centuries were nearly suicidal. 
• The only people who would become coal miners were the ones who absolutely had to. 
• It was an extremely dangerous job. 
• There were no regulations on mining. 
• Mining capacity increases, more homes and factories are using coal
• It's expanding on itself.
• Iron industry
• pig iron - smelted with a coke fire 
• coke is burned coal
• coke can be used as an alternative to heat things
• This meant that you could work more because you needed less material and you could recycle the material. 
• Transportation 
• railroads - carry materials from one place to another
• more capacity to move things
• things can move faster
• Canal
• Can send barges down or up river. You can move goods anywhere you want. 
• Change everything with distribution of goods
• 1804-1820
• some halfway successful attempts at creating working rail cars. 
• George Stevenson creates the first public rail cars designed to move passengers around. 
• That line becomes too expensive to maintain. The idea remained though. 
• Trade distribution between cities on continents begins. 
• Steam Engine
• During the 18th century the population in Europe grew faster than it ever had before in history
• Decline in death rate
• Increase in birth rate
• Virtual elimination of plague diseases
• Food production
• Factory jobs were tough, but because they were in demand, they often paid better wages than the farm jobs. 
• It allowed people to marry younger, children to be born earlier. 
• The old system of apprenticeship is not needed anymore. 
• Someone isn't needed to learn how to do something if their job is to learn how to run the machine that does that task. 
• Size of the middle class is increased. 
• Poor farm workers can marry people who are richer and in turn become richer. 
• Towns are created because of factories
• Capital and labor
• capital is the amount of money you have to invent into something
• ability to grow capital and use it as investment that produces more profit is a fundamental part of capitalism. 
• Need a labor pool of people who are willing to work in the factories. 

Term Paper Topic

Phase 1 (German phase) of the Invasion of Poland in WWII

Reflection: Napoleon and the French Revolution

Napoleon and the French Revolution are both examples of how the underdog can rise up and become much more than ever expected of them.  In the French Revolution the third estate rose up against the monarchy.  They protested against what they believed to be wrong.  Their protests eventually worked and members of the third estate became the leaders of France.  Napoleon was from a poor "noble" family.  He was not rich, but his father was a representative from Corsica at Versailles and he was able to go to school in France.  Napoleon was also small and not very intimidating looking. However, he gained the respect of powerful people and he rose up in society to become Emperor of France.

Napoleon

• Napoleon rises after the Revolution
• Napoleon is the first Consul.
• First Consul was set up to assure democracy in France. 
• This was supposed to be temporary
• Napoleon took advantage of this to become dictator. 
• A new constitution was approved. 
• The French people chose a new senate. However, this senate had very little power in the constitution, which allows Napoleon to consolidate his own power. 
• In exchange for this Napoleon offered peace to the French people. 
• Basically he says "I need this power right now, so I can defeat our enemies" and the French people say "Go for it." 
• When he defeats Austria (the enemy), the people love him. 
• The English and Dutch were not too happy with the French because of what happened in the Hapsburg Netherlands. 
• He is dictator, but he is doing it for the good of the country. 
• He brings law and order.  He brings a strong legal system and strong system of government. 
• Napoleon offers the emigraes amnesty. An emigrae was someone who was against the revolution. 
• 1799-1804 is when Napoleon is rebuilding France.  He wants the French people to realize that he is the great leader in charge. 
• Napoleon starts a secret police force and he suppresses the media because of opposition to him. 
• The newspapers shrink from about 70 to only a dozen and those dozen are state controlled. 
• Napoleon restores peace with the Vatican. 
• Napoleon says that Catholicism is the major religion of France.  He does not declare it as the actual religion that people must follow though. 
• In exchange for this Napoleon says that he gets to pick the Church leadership within France. 
• Papal Bull - official Church document coming from the Pope
• Napoleon says that the Pope can issue those, but that he is the one who decides if France follows them. 
• Organic Articles to the Concordate
• Basically said that any church decisions were subject to government approval. 
• Napoleon gets to decide the leadership, what church documents apply, and force clergy to read state documents to their congregations. 
• Unions and guilds were not allowed to organize. 
• He kept the school systems and metric system from the French Revolution.
• The most important thing he does is the Napoleonic Code
• an overhaul of the French legal system
• criminal code and civil code
• citizens were declared equal
• freedom of religion was guaranteed. 
• labor unions were outlawed. 
• women lost the legal gains from the Revolution.
• men gained all control of property
• women had no rights to her earnings. 
• ones status was defined by ones wealth. 
• it was possible that you could move up. place in society was not set in stone. 
• In 1802 Napoleon is named consul for life. 
• He has the power to chose his own successor and amend the constitution. 
• In 1804, with those new powers, he has himself coronated as emperor of France. 
• Napoleon desired to expand his empire.
• In 1804 he sells Louisiana to the U.S. so he does not have to deal with the slave problem.  
• Napoleon decides that he is going to begin expanding his empire by starting a naval war with England. 
• In 1805 the English and French fight at Trafalgar. 
• Sends his land army against Austria and Russia. Defeats those armies in 1805. 
• He gains control of old principalities of the Holy Roman Empire and makes them into the Confederation of the Rhine. Poland becomes the Grand Duchy of Russia. 
• In 1807 he sets up a treaty with the czar of Russia called the Treaty of Tilsit. 
• He can't beat England because his navy has been destroyed. 
• He takes a different approach and establishes the continental system. 
• If you are an ally of France you are forced to boycott English products. 
• They do not want to fight Napoleon so they agree to boycott English products. 
• In Spain, Napoleon pulls some political strings. 
• He convinces the Spanish monarch to leave the throne and he puts his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain. He supports the new king of Spain with a large French occupying force. 
• Long war between Spanish guerilla forces and French in Spain. 
• Peninsular War (Spain is located in the Iberian Peninsula)
• Napoleon divorces Josephine because she has not produced a male heir
• He marries the daughter of the Austrian emperor Francis II, Marie Louis, in 1810. 
• She is 19 and he is 40. 
• In 1811 she produces a male heir. 
• Napoleon has holdings in Germany, Poland, Spain, he's strangulating the British, his ships are cutting off British trade; however, outside of France, he is rather resented: particularly in Germany. 
• In 1809 & 1810 a wave of nationalism comes over the states in East Germany and Alexander, the czar of Russia, backs out of the continental system. Russia allies with Britain (1810). 
• Napoleon doesn't like this.  He sends an invasion army to attack Russia. 
• 700,000 French troops. 
• Russia is huge though. 
• Russia uses a scorched earth policy. 
• They see the French coming towards town, so they burn down their town and all the fields and back up. Now the French keep coming, and they repeat again. The French supply lines are so long that you can start attacking from behind. Once their food runs out there is now nowhere to get food because the Russians burned down the crops. It is also cold and miserable and when Napoleon attacks Russia it is one of the coldest winters of the 19th Century. 
• 1812: battle during the winter in Moscow
• Napoleon wins the battle, but then a blizzard hits. 
• Many members of Napoleons army die because of the blizzard. 
• Napoleon comes back to France. 
• The Russians feel that they have the upper hand now. 
• They sign a deal with the Prussians. 
• The Prussians and Russians fight against Napoleon at the battle of Leipzig and defeat Napoleon. 
• Russia, Prussia, England, and Austria sign the quadruple alliance in March of 1814. 
• Napoleon realizes that he has lost, abdicates the throne, and attempts suicide. 
• The people of France exile him to the island of Elba. 
• French bring in Louis XVIII who is the brother of Louis XVI. He is installed as the constitutional monarch. 
• The leaders of the quadruple alliance meet with the French minister, Talleyrand. 
• Napoleon escapes from Elba. 
• In 1815 he raises a new army of his own. 
• In the "100 Days" he battles through Europe, finally meeting the British at Waterloo in Belgium. Napoleon is captured by British and sent to St. Helena. 
• He stayed there until he died in 1821.
• Napoleon affects the alliances that form.  These alliances will have significance later during WWI. 
• Napoleon demonstrates the dangers of revolution
• What you get might not be what you wanted. 

8. Based on your study of the French Revolution and your current observations of the situation in Egypt, what do you think are possible outcomes? How are the possible outcomes in Egypt alike or different with outcomes in France -- both in the short and long term.

The outcomes of the Egyptian Revolution will most likely end up being a lot better than the French Revolutions.  The whole revolution in Egypt has remained very peaceful for the most part, unlike how the French Revolution was violent.  The Egyptian military also agrees with many of the things the people are saying.  They are willing to start reforming the government towards a democracy.  Right now it does not look like Egypt will be heading in the direction of the French Revolution where there was a major power struggle after and the Terror occurred.  There is always the chance that things could go wrong in Egypt and violence could occur like what happened after the French Revolution, but that is highly unlikely.

7. What do people on the ground in Cairo think is going to happen now? (Directly contact reporters and bloggers in Egypt via Twitter during this class period).

Right now there is much celebration going in Cairo.  People are rejoicing in the fact that their protests worked and that Mubarak stepped down.  They now however have to reform their government and work with the military to decide on what to do. The people want the state of emergency to be rescinded. The people want the constitution to be amended, so that future elections are free and fair.  They do not want another dictatorship. It will be a process to move towards this democracy, but Egypt is on the right track.

http://www.npr.org/2011/02/12/133717052/Defining-Democracy-In-Egypt

6. Are the current protests violent?

For the most part the protests were not violent.  However, there were a few deaths and injuries.  The protests did not really get violent until the police attacked some people.  Now Mubarak has stepped down and the people are just jubilantly celebrating their triumph.

5. How did/are people express(ing) their views?

During the French Revolution people expressed their views by marching on Versailles, forming groups such as the National Assembly, writing new constitutions, and printing pamphlets that stated why they were against the monarchy.  During the Egyptian Revolution people expressed their views by blogging, tweeting, and posting about them through different social networking cites and protesting (mostly peacefully) for days on end by marching in Tahir Square.

4. What concerns are their about the current situation in Egypt? How might they relate to the days following the fall of Louis XVI?

Egypt is celebrating their new freedom right now.  However there is a need for someone to control the country and re stabilization. The Egyptian people would like a democracy to be set-up.  Negotiations are going to have to be made between the people and the Egyptian military, which is running the country right now. The people are happy to have Mubarak out of office though for now.  Hopefully they will continue to be peaceful instead of what happened after the fall of Louis XVI.  After Louis XVI was executed the Terror began where thousands of people who were against the revolution were murdered. It was a state of fear and chaos.

3. What role did women play?

In the Egyptian Revolution women protested right along with the men.  They marched in front of the presidential palace and in Tahir Square, which was where most protests occurred. Women also helped organize protests and spread news of the protests through social networking.

In the French Revolution women led many of the marches. They marched on Versailles where the royal family lived. A woman named Olympe de Gouge wrote an essay called "The Rights of Women."  This essay argued on behalf of a woman's right to education, to control property within a marriage, and to initiate divorce. The essay was spread around France and many things that de Gouge argued were put into the Constitution by the National Assembly.  

2. In each case, WHY were the people protesting? (Cite primary sources).

During the French Revolution people were mainly protesting against unfair taxation. Only the poor were being taxed, while the nobility and clergy were being exempt from taxes.  Inflation was very high because France had a large debt to pay off.  There was also a high unemployment.  All of this mainly effected the lower class so they were very angry and decided to revolt against their unfair treatment.

http://history.hanover.edu/texts/cahiers3.html
http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/turgot/reflecti
http://history.hanover.edu/texts/abolfeud.html

The people of Egypt started protesting because they felt that their president, Mubarak had become a dictator and they did not like it.  They wanted their freedom back.  Inspired by protests that had worked in Tunisia, Egypt started protesting as well. There has been unemployment in Egypt.  Mubarak has also taken away some rights of the people, such as freedom of speech.  When they started protesting he banned protesting.  He even shut down the internet so that people could not plan protests or meet-ups.

http://www.npr.org/2011/02/06/133547742/The-Sounds-Of-Protests-In-Egypt
http://www.npr.org/2011/01/27/133264703/Egyptian-Protests-Continue
http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/01/26/egyptian-bloggers-report-on-new-unrest/

1. Compare / Contrast Louis XVI and Mubarak.

Similarities	Differences
Louis and Mubarak both held power in their countries for long periods of time.	Louis became king when he was 20. Mubarak became president when he was 53.
Louis was an absolute monarch and Mubarak was a dictator.  Both are practically the same thing.	Louis had an advisor, who helped him with important decisions and acted as a vice president would, while Mubarak did not have a vice president.
Before the French Revolution nobles and clergy enjoyed special privileges.  During Mubaraks reign wealthier people also enjoyed special privileges.	Louis was executed, while Mubarak was only forced to give up his power and leave Cairo.
Both Louis and Mubarak succeeded to the throne after their predecessor died.	Louis did not meet with rulers of countries France had problems with, such as England, while Mubarak met and made treaties with countries Egypt had problems with, like Israel.
Louis helped the Americans when they revolted against the British.  Mubarak allied with the U.S. during the Gulf War.
Both were forced out of office by people’s protests.

Kaplan Unit 3 Review

Score: 16/20

1979 DBQ The French Revolution and The Terror

Essay: 

The Terror was a horrendous period during the French Revolution of murder and unfair rule. The Committee of Public Safety and the National Convention had decided that they would unite the forces of the Mountain and Jacobin against the nobility and the Girodins.  Anyone who was against them and the revolution was killed. The Terror was helpful in exterminating the rebellious Frenchmen and intimidating the people; however, even those that had been on the side of the Mountain and Jacobin realized how bad things were, so they rose up against the tyrannical Committee of Public Safety and National Convention, disbanding them, and creating a new democratic government.

The Terror was a terrible time to be living in France.  Robespierre, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, led the Terror.  The Terror was time where anyone against the Revolution was murdered.  The areas where the executions of the Terror were mainly focused were Vendee, Lore, Lyon, and Paris (Doc. 1). People were brought to be executed by either having their head chopped off by the guillotine, being shot, or being drowned. In Paris 2,639 people were executed.  Most of these people, 53%, were nobles or upper middle class.  Only 23% of the people executed in Paris were the working class and peasants.  However, throughout France only 15% of the people executed were in the upper class or nobles and 68% were in the working class or peasantry (Doc. 2).  People were murdered for an array of crimes including, conspiracy, being against the revolution, "hostile acts against the state," and "intelligence with the enemy" (Doc. 3)

All of this horror was terrifying to the people.  Family members and friends were everyday, being murdered right in front of their eyes. In a speech to Parliament, the British Prime Minister, William Pitt, talks about the French people saying, "But their efforts are merely the result of a system of restraint and oppression, the most terrible and gigantic, that has, perhaps, ever existed. They are compelled into the field by the terror of the
guillotine – they are supported there only by those resources which their desperate situation affords;
and, in these circumstances, what can be the dependence on the steadiness of their operations, or what
rational prospect can there be of the permanence of their exertions?" (Doc. 8)  The situation for the French people was not good.  If they rose up against Robespierre, they were executed.  The people soon realized that the Terror could go on no more and that they had to do something.  In a report to the French government on public opinion from February 23, 1794, it was said that, “Bitter complaints already expressed numberless times, were repeated today of the arrest and imprisonment of citizens who are good patriots and are victims of ambition, cupidity, jealousy, and, in short, every human passion" (Doc. 10).  In another report to the government from March of 1794, it says that, "The revolutionary committees are every day falling into discredit. You daily hear that they consist of a number of intriguers, who plunder the nation and oppress citizens, It is a fact that there is no section in Paris which is not dissatisfied with its revolutionary committee or does not seriously desire to have them abolished" (Doc. 13)  The people were unhappy with their government.  They were becoming fed up with the unfair rule and evil that was their government.  Some people still believed in the government saying, "The law is just" (Doc. 12).

Most of the people disagreed though and eventually that grew to be so much that Robespierre was accused of treason and executed, something which he had accused of so many innocent people. At the end of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety was disbanded.  The government was taken down and a new group called the Thermidorians came to power.  They created a democratic government and greatly improved the French nation.

French Revolution

• France could not be sustained because it had a large population controlled by a small group of the elite.  
• Guillotine - used to kill someone by chopping off their head
• Maximillien Robespierre
• Never had a family. 
• Essentially he was an orphan at the age of 8. 
• He became head of his family (siblings) and always wanted to maintain order. 
• He liked to be in solitude and isolation. 
• Went to school and was very smart, but was poor. 
• Will become the "prime mover and shaker" of the execution of Louis XVI. 
• Came from a broken home. His mother had died and his father left. They were poor. 
• He became a lawyer at the Parlement of Paris. 
• He entered for prizes in literary contests. 
• In law cases, he took the side of the poor and humble. 
• At the beginning he did not believe in capital punishment. 
• He was elected to the Estates General from Artois. 
• He was unknown at first, but he gradually gains a reputation. 
• He invokes Rousseau's idea that the king should not impose or delay legislature made by the assembly. 
• The change that had occurred between Louis XIV and Louis XVI was that the king had become very distant from what was going on with the legislature. 
• thought all male citizens should have the right to vote. 
• always wore white clothes and a powdered wig. 
• Doesn't like people touching him. 
• Ate very modestly. 
• He identified with ordinary people and ends up living in western Paris. 
• Read a lot. 
• Wrote his speeches. 
• Always very clean and put together looking
• In the 18th century France was divided into three estates
• Clergy 
• Strong bond between church and state. 
• Church operated schools. 
• Kept vital statistics
• births, marriages, and deaths. 
• Took care of the poor in France. 
• Collected a tithe - 10% of the income of any French person. 
• It was assumed that all Frenchmen were Catholics. 
• Expected that any could Catholic would give 10% of their earnings to the church. 
• Many men that were in the nobility were in the clergy. 
• Hostility between Parish priests and the priests within the French nobility
• Nobility
• Comprised about 2% of the population. 
• Owned almost 1/4 of the land in France. 
• Were no longer any serfs
• Futile system was over. 
• Nobility kept certain privileges
• exemption from most taxes.
• Exclusive property rights
• hunting and fishing
• Everybody else
• Wealthy professionals, businessmen, merchants, professors, peasants, etc. 
• Bulk of the population
• Among the educated middle class, there was a lot of animosity and resentment to the nobility.
• 1730-1780 - Prices for goods and commodities rose about 65%, but the standard of living only rose, at most, to around 25%.  
• These people saw their purchasing power and their ability to sustain their families plummet. 
• France's economy was a bit different from the norm at this time.  The nobility was not directly involved in running agriculture. There was a separation between work and the nobility. 
• The people who have the most money and most capacity when prices are soaring for 98% of the people, are not taking a tax cut off those people.  The state itself is slowly running out of money, although the nobility is living like kings. 
• France, at this time, did not have paper money. 
• Therefore you could not adjust inflation by any sort of monetary means that would apply to the whole country. 
• In this country, when we get into trouble with money, the Federal Reserve can cut interest. That happens because we have our own paper currency. If  we did that with gold it would affect all the economies in the world that use gold. 
• Louis XVI becomes king in 1774.  He is a weak monarch. 
• Louis XVI was young when he became king. He was married to Marie Antoinette.  She was Austrian. She was very disliked by the French people. They called her the "Austrian whore."
• This did not help the already weak monarch. 
• Other problems: 
• 1. Decrease in farm-able land, therefore decrease in jobs. 
• 2. Fear of grain shortages. If there is less food the peasantry is either going to starve or revolt. 
• 3. Taille - tax on the poor. The nobility, who had the most money, got out of paying taxes.  The poor was taxed by the taille. Plus, 10% of the peoples income went to the church.  
• This is an example of how not to run a country. 
• Don't put the burden on the poor. 
• Louis XV had appointed a chancellor named Maupeou. Basically his commission was to try to find a way to tax the nobility. The attempts to tax the wealthy just made the nobility angry. 
• In 1788, with the country itself on the verge of bankruptcy, Louis XVI calls the Estates General. The Estates General bring a group of citizens together to come up with a solution to a problem and then propose that to plan to the king. 
• The last time the Estates General met they made a rule that each estate had equal voting.  This did not represent all teh people well. 
• Joseph Sieyes wrote a pamphlet called "What is the Third Estate?"
• Basically Sieyes thesis is that you could get rid of the first and second estate and France would be better off.  He argues that France fundamentally is the Third Estate. 
• This gives the people in the third estate ideas. 
• the meeting of the estates general began in 1789********* IMPORTANT YEAR
• The meeting started out poorly. The first and second estates refused to meet with the third estate. the third estate went to the king and refused to take part in the estates general until the other two estates would actually sit down with them. 
• This 'battle of wills' went on for about 6 weeks
• the third estate calls their own national assmebly, saying that they are the true representative of the french people. 
• Now, the first and second estate lock the national assembly out of the meeting room, and wont let them in.
• On June 20, 1789, the national assembly/third estate moved to an indoor tennis court as a meeting place and they swore to continue to meet there as the national assembly, fundamentally driving a wedge between the clergy and nobility on one side and the people on the other side. They swore they would stay there until a new constitution would be written. 
• The king basically dismisses the third estate from the estates general. 
• As all of this is happening bread prices go through the roof. 
• The reason was that there had been a bad harvest. 
• In a very short time (within 6 weeks), the price of the staple in most peoples diet became not affordable and unavailable. 
• There was a lot of unemployment too. 
• On July 14, 1789 a mob attacked the Bastile.
• The Bastile was an old jail that was at this time being used to house ammunitions. 
• The French people themselves are terrified that the French military is going to impose military rule.  They try to take the Bastile to defend themselves and they burn the Bastile. 
• The National Assembly is working on a new constitution, while outside there is chaos. 
• The Emigrays
• nobles who were fearing for their lives. 
• Their leader was the Count Artois. 
• He is the brother of Louis XVI
• The king allows the people to appoint a new government of the city of Paris.  This was called the citizens committee. He also brings up the National Guard to keep order. 
• King appointed Lafayette to be in charge of the National Guard. 
• Sidenote: he helped us defeat the British in the American Revolution
• This is the first time we see the national flag of France that is still used today. 
• The flag becomes a symbol of the French Revolution. 
• August 1789: 
• The assembly completed production of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. It listed the basic human rights as liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, freedom of religion, due process of law (means you're allowed to face trial), and taxes by common consent. 
• Only men were allowed to take part in politics. However, many women were involved in the revolution. 
• Olympe de Gouges is a woman who writes an essay called "The Rights of Women"
• This argued on behalf of a woman's right to education, to control property within a marriage, and to initiate divorce. 
• She talks about the social contract in terms of gender relations. It is important that there is a social contract between men and women. 
• It went so far that the National Assembly will put a lot of this stuff into the constitution. 
• How did the French revolution impact both political and social issues?
• Good argument would be that it impacted gender equality. 
• October 1789
• a 100,000 people, most of them women, march on Versailles.  They demand bread and that the royal family return to Paris. 
• The king submits to some of the claims of the National Assembly. 
• King loses veto power.  He was granted suspending power. This meant that he could hold up legislation, but he gave up his absolute right to make law. 
• Slavery was abolished. 
• Problem: There are no taxes being collected. A government can't work without taxes. This forces Louis XVI to seize property from the church. For the first time he issues paper money called assignats. He uses the property that he takes from the church to support the paper money. 
• Then he makes a big mistake. 
• He sells the property. 
• the government is broke, they have no way to collect taxes, so he seizes property, and then he uses the property to back up the 100 million dollars worth of money that he prints, or however much he prints, but then he sells the properties. so then the value of the money goes down
• it destroys it
• Inflation goes through the roof, and the king starts to sell anything he can get his hands on, just to get money
• the emigres manor hoses are acquired by the king and sells them. 
• the nobility- they are unhappy now that louis is confiscating their property
• so basically, everyone hates him
• (The government cant tax because the national assembly says no. and then the king cannot veto this.)
• The church cannot support itself without it's property. 
• The national assembly passes a bill that will not just separate church and state, but will change the way the church elects it's officials. 
• They start holding elections for the local offices. 
• Supporters of the revolution were organized into clubs
• Jacobin club was the most influential. 
• In 1791 the royal family tries to flee, but is not able to do so. It is at this time that some influential and outspoken critics of the government start to argue for a republic. 
• George Jacques Danton and Jean Paul Marat
• The new constitution goes into effect in 1791. The new form of government was a constitutional monarchy.  It had one legislative branch, called unicameral. 
• Other countries are afraid their people are going to get ideas from France. 
• The Declaration of Pillnitz
• Leopold (Austrian) says if necessary he would use military order to restore the government in Paris. He was hoping this would scare them. Leopold gets sick and dies though and his son takes over. 
• At this time the French national anthem is adopted. 
• Spring 1792: the royal family is under house arrest.
• 1792 is declared year #1 of the French Republic. 
• They even changed the names of the months to reflect the revolution. 
• much secularization occurred. 
• There is de-Christianization throughout France. 
• French go through the Hapsburg Netherlands "liberating" people by taking away the feudal system. 
• This is the first time in French history where citizens in France are actually called citizens. 
• The people in the Dutch Republic don't really want to have anything to do with France. 
• The Dutch Republic bring in the English to make a stand against the French occupiers in the Hapsburg Netherlands
• The National Assembly, now called the National Convention, was split between two parties. 
• Girondins
• Jacobin
• Basically said that anyone against the Jacobin's were anti-revolutionary.
• These people who started as revolutionaries start letting power get to them. 
• There is fighting between these two parties. 
• Another party starts to develop called the Mountain. These are the people who are really listening to the average people in France. 
• Louis XVI is found to be talking to the King of Austria. He is brought up on charges of treason against France and is executed. 
• The working class demands monetary controls. 
• Inflation had been tremendous and there had been currency problems. 
• The Mountain elects Robespierre as their spokesperson. 
• The working people have a hero. They have someone to look towards who has been through the same sorts of things as they have. 
• The National Convention appoints a commission to deal with the problems in the working classes. It is called the Committee of Public Safety.
• Made up of 12 representatives. 
• Task was to run the government. 
• Robespierre was one of the 12. 
• The aim, originally, was to "protect" France. 
• This turns from public safety outside the country to looking very carefully at what's going on inside the country. 
• A #1 aim of the committee was suppressing opposition to the French government. 
• If you stood accused of treason then you had no rights. 
• Women were banned from gathering. 
• Their rights had been progressing, but were now taking a step back. 
• Women had also taken a great part in progressing the Revolution. 
• 1793-1794
• 9 months of "The Terror"
• During this the time, the convention and the Committee of Public Safety, decide that the forces of the Mountain and Jacobins will unite.  They are going to unite against the second estate and Girodins. 
• People who did not want the revolution were executed. They did not get a trial
• Victims included: Marie Antoinette, Olympe de Gouge
• Estimates range from 18,000-40,000 killed during that year. 
• It was said that the streets were covered in blood where the public executions were held. 
• July 1794, both conservatives and radicals finally turn against Robespierre. 
• He was executed and by that fall the Committee for Public Safety was disbanded. 
• As a result of the Terror the economy of France was nearly destroyed. 
• Jobs and wages plummeted. Inflation skyrocketed. 
• The poor themselves felt completely used.  
• A new group rises up. 
• Thermodorians 
• wrote a third constitution which went into affect in 1795
• allowed male citizens to vote. 
• legislature made up of two houses. 
• The 500 - the dominant house similar to the House of Representatives. 
• The Elders
• also chose an Executive branch
• lasted for 4 years. 
• called the Directory and made up of 5 people. 
• chose 5 people because it was an odd number and would not give one person absolute power. 
• Among the people there was unrest with the new government. 
• They were very nervous about this. 
• A certain young commander was put in the position of calming people's nerves about all this. His name was Napoleon Bonaparte. 
• 1796 Bonaparte marries Josephine.
• she had close ties to the man who formed the directory of 5
• helped Napoleon gain a military commission to go to Northern Italy 
• drives out the Hapsburgs. 
• set up a new government in Italy called Cisalpine 
• Napoleon wants to keep the possessions from Austria. 
• 1797
• France has an election
• Candidates leading the election were actually favoring the royalist and the return of the exiled Louis XVIII, son of Louis XVI. 
• The directory appeals to Napoleon for what to do. 
• Napoleon sends a force against the royalist elements in the French government. 
• They take out the royalists. This leaves 3 of the 5. They decide to abandon the elections of 1797 because of this emergency situation. 
• Impact of the revolution 
• 1789-1799
• much had changed
• no more absolute monarchy
• looking at the rise of Napoleon
• feudalism was gone
• titles and privileges of the nobility were gone
• manor houses were gone
• ability for people to organize was gone
• local governments and military leadership positions were now jobs. 
• there were elections and leaders were paid a salary. 

Candide Essay Outline

Thesis: Martin's pessimism, an enlightened approach to life, is better because it is realistic and it puts life into perspective for Candide, while Pangloss's optimistic view was quixotic and simply not possible, which even Pangloss realizes by the end of the novel.

Outline: 

1. Pessimistic Enlightenment ideas and optimistic Pre-Enlightenment ideas
1. Leibniz was a German philosopher who believed in the optimistic Pre-Enlightenment idea that because God created the world and God is perfect, anything that happens in the world is the best thing that could possibly happen. 
1. Pangloss represents Leibniz's views. 
2. Voltaire, the author of Candide, argues against this idea in Candide by using satire to show his pessimistic Enlightenment beliefs.
1. Martin represents Voltaire's views. 
2. Pangloss has an optimistic belief, which is quixotic and not possible.
1. He teaches Candide that nothing can be bad in the world because God created it and God is perfect. 
2. Candide suffers many awful things. 
1. In chapter 2 Candide is whipped brutally by the Bulgars.
1. He still believes in Pangloss's optimism though.  
2. In chapter 19 Candide meets a slave who is missing a leg and a hand. 
1. It is at this point that Candide renounces Pangloss's optimism because he sees how unequal and cruel the world really is.
3.  Martin has a realistic approach to life.
1. Martin acknowledges that there are bad things in the world.
1. He believes that the world is imperfect. 
2. He has a pessimistic and realistic view of life. 
2. He helps to change Candide's view of the world. 
1. In Chapter 20 the ship of the captain who took Candide's money sinks and the captain and crew drown
1. Candide is happy about this and says that there is some good in the world.
2. Martin argues saying, "but did the passengers aboard his ship have to perish too?"
2. In Chapter 24 Candide starts to agree with Martin after losing money to a valet and not being able to find Cacambo or Cunegonde. 
4. Conclusion
1. Pangloss had an optimistic and unrealistic view of the world. 
2. Martin's view of the world was more realistic and it showed the world for how it truly is. 
3. Candide learns that Pangloss's belief  was wrong and even Pangloss does too.

Enlightenment Notes

• Gottfried Leibniz
• Theodicy and optimism. 
• Doesn't use optimism like we do. 
• In Pre-Enlightenment German philosophy, optimism is when something happens to it's greatest extent. 
• Theodicy - attempt to justify imperfections in the world. 
• If God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all good, then wouldn't he be able to stop bad things from happening to good people?
• Leibniz said that because God is all powerful, good, and knowing, the world as it is, is the best of all possible worlds because according to Leibniz God's strength, power, knowledge, and goodness makes it so that nothing God creates can go against that, so therefore, anything that happens is the will of God, God's will is all good, therefore anything that happens in the world is the best thing that could possibly happen. 
• Enlightenment thinkers thought that the religious wars were ridiculous. 
• They thought it was stupid to fight over religion when there were so many other more important issues. 
• Enlightenment tried to use REASON. 
• The Founding Father's of the U.S. were all Enlightenment thinkers. 
• Separation of Church and State is an Enlightenment idea. 
• Diderot's Encyclopedia: The first attempt at information technology. 
• Voltaire 
• Wrote Candide
• Uses satire to make fun of Leibniz's thinking.  
• Says that Leibniz's theory is invalid. 
• Montesquieu - came up with personal essays. 
• Used reasoning and nuance to make decisions. 
• Rousseau
• Wrote one of the fundamental documents for the Enlightenment and was used as the foundation for the Enlightenment's principles. 
• Within a democracy it's different because there is no king.  To get along with one another we don't look up to one person to tell us whether we're right or wrong. We create the laws so each of us has the maximum freedom and maximum protection. TO THE MAX. 
• The social contract is between people in a society and the people and the government.
• Opposite of Thomas Hobbes. 
• Hobbes says that because life is short they need a monarch to get things done for the people. 
• Rousseau says that what Hobbes says produces inequality and is bad.  
• Johnathan Swift
• Wrote A Modest Proposal.
• Ireland is going through a drought.
• The British should force the Irish to have more babies, so they have something to eat. 
• Used this to show how ridiculous it was that they could not come up with a way to get food and to show the corruption of thought in the political framework of this time. 
• Voltaire and Swift both used satire. 
• Adam Smith was the father of capitalism. 
• Adam Smith's idea was an open market. Anyone has the potential to make or lose a fortune.  
• People are not born a winner or loser.  They make their own destiny. 
• Mercantile approach was opposite - all dictated by monarch or state
• Before the Enlightenment there were absolute monarchs - Louis XIV, Peter the Great, etc. 
• The Enlightenment thinkers completely break with that tradition. 
• Immanuel Kant
• categorical imperative - philosophy of ethics: if you create a rule for one person, it applies to all. 
• Ex. If you say "do not lie" then in no situation should anyone lie and if they do they're breaking the law. 
• Jeremy Bentham - English philosopher who argued against Kant
• Kant says that if you make a rule then it applies to all situations
• Bentham says that there is a problem with that. 
• Ex. You have been out partying, you drive your car home, you're not paying attention to what you're doing, so you hit a pedestrian, and then you keep driving.  The police come the next morning and question you.  Under categorical imperative, you need to tell them what happened. 
• Ex. It's 1942, you're living in the Netherlands, and SS soldiers come to your door asking if any Jews are living in your house. You know that there is a secret door to your attic where a Jewish family who you are close friends with hiding there.  Under categorical imperative you must tell the soldiers that there are Jews there, knowing that they will be taken to the concentration camps. 
• Bentham says that it doesn't allow choice. 
• The categorical imperative forces legislators to be more thoughtful of how they make laws.  They always have to think about how a statement can come back and hurt them.  
• Utilitarian choice is Bentham's ethical philosophy 
• Utilitarianism is the idea that you have to do what is best for the most people. 
• German philosophy - categorical imperative vs. English philosophy - utilitarian choice

Women in the Enlightenment 

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